Environment and Interdisciplinary Development

Abstract Introduction: Biodiversity has gained significant attention in recent decades due to growing awareness of its ecological role, global importance, and projected large-scale declines. The rapid pace of environmental degradation and biodiversity loss underscores the urgent need to protect areas that comprehensively represent regional biodiversity. Effective conservation requires establishing adequate networks of protected areas within each country, aligned with global strategies, to serve as refuges safeguarding diverse flora and fauna while ensuring their long-term survival. At a global scale, amphibians are the most threatened group of vertebrates. Currently, habitat degradation and destruction constitute the primary drivers of species and population declines. This study evaluates the efficacy of existing protected areas in conserving the Lorestan newt (Neurergus kaiseri), an endangered endemic species, across Lorestan and Khuzestan provinces in Iran.
Materials and Methods: This study utilized 62 presence points collected from historical literature, official records of the Lorestan Department of Environment, and local ecological knowledge. Habitat suitability was modeled using Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) in RStudio. Spatial statistical methods—including the Getis-Ord Gi* hotspot analysis, Anselin Local Moran’s I (for spatial autocorrelation), and Natural Breaks (Jenks) classification—were compared to identify critical habitat patches. The efficacy of existing protected areas for conserving the Lorestan newt was then evaluated by spatially overlaying these habitat hotspots with current protected area boundaries.
Results: The MaxEnt habitat suitability model demonstrated high reliability and predictive accuracy for Lorestan newt distribution, as evidenced by an AUC (Area Under the Curve) value of 0.95. Jackknife analysis identified the most influential environmental variables as: minimum temperature of the coldest month (Bio6), annual precipitation (Bio12), precipitation of the coldest quarter (Bio19), isothermality (Bio3), and elevation. Comparative evaluation of spatial analysis methods revealed that the Getis-Ord Gi* approach achieved superior performance in hotspot detection, with an AUC of 0.96.
Discussion: Species distribution modeling has become an increasingly vital tool for supporting biodiversity conservation management. This study integrated maximum entropy modeling with spatial data mining techniques to identify habitat hotspots for the Lorestan newt and evaluate their overlap with existing protected areas. The results revealed that only 6% of critical habitat hotspots (31,520.16 out of 579,106.35 hectares) currently fall within protected area boundaries. Notably, Khuzestan Province - containing 54% of all identified hotspots - lacks any designated protected areas for this species. In contrast, two regions in Lorestan Province demonstrated high conservation efficacy: Shadabkuh 1 (98% overlap) and Tang-e Haft (93% overlap). These findings highlight three urgent conservation priorities: (1) comprehensive revision of the current protected area network, (2) establishment of new protected zones in northern Khuzestan, and (3) creation of habitat connectivity corridors to ensure long-term species survival.

Abstract Introduction: Urban land uses, including educational institutions, especially universities, have a significant share in the consumption of natural resources and the production of pollutants, and consequently exert considerable impacts on the environment. Due to the service-oriented nature and the wide range of educational, research, and support activities, universities consume large amounts of energy, water, and other resources. Therefore, accurate and comprehensive assessment of their environmental impacts through indicators such as the ecological footprint is an undeniable necessity for sustainable resource management and reducing environmental consequences.
Material and Methods: The present study was conducted with the aim of evaluating the ecological footprint of Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources in the new campus area, using the life cycle assessment approach. In this study, by identifying the consumed resources and related environmental flows, an attempt was made to provide a quantitative picture of the impacts resulting from university activities. The results of this research can be used as a basis for optimizing consumption patterns, developing environmental strategies, and moving towards green universities. Considering the significant share of universities in resource consumption and pollutant production, and the lack of comprehensive and scientific assessments of the environmental impacts of educational institutions in the country, conducting this research with a life cycle approach is an important step towards improving sustainable management and enhancing the environmental performance of universities. In this study, in addition to the ecological footprint by the EF method, the water footprint by the AWARE method, and also the carbon footprint by the IPCC method in 2023 were examined. The total number of staff and students of Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources in the campus unit is 4,121.
Results: The final estimated ecological footprint score of Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources is -2.75 pt. The greatest negative impact on the university’s ecological footprint relates to electricity consumption, and in the impact categories, to climate change, followed by resource consumption, while the greatest environmentally compatible effect on the university’s ecological footprint is related to water storage and the university’s water recycling system. The results obtained from examining the carbon footprint show that the final value obtained for the carbon footprint of Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources is -2.17 × 104 kilograms of carbon dioxide equivalent. Water storage is one of the most effective solutions in reducing the carbon footprint, since this action, by reducing dependence on pumping operations, significantly reduces energy consumption and ultimately leads to a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. Electricity consumption at the university has increased its carbon footprint. The total estimated score for the water footprint of Gorgan University of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources is -1.06 × 104.
Discussion: The measures presented, such as creating water storage and recycling systems and green spaces at the university, have positive and environmentally compatible effects. Analysis of the ecological footprint of universities using the life cycle approach can be used as a model for other educational institutions to reduce environmental impacts and for effective planning. This study shows that accurate and comprehensive assessments are an effective step in optimizing resource consumption and protecting the environment. Overall, this research, through a multidimensional evaluation of environmental impacts, reveals the importance of resource management and the implementation of sustainable solutions in universities and can pave the way for improving the environmental performance of educational institutions.

Abstract Introduction: The Pharaoh Cuttlefish (A. pharaonis), due to its high commercial and export value, is harvested in the Persian Gulf and the Oman Sea using various fishing gears, including trawl nets, traps (Gargoor), and gillnets. Although comprehensive stock assessments are lacking, available evidence suggests that this species is under increasing fishing pressure in the region. This study aimed to investigate the growth and mortality parameters of A. pharaonis based on age-based models in the waters of Hormozgan Province. The findings can inform fisheries managers in developing effective conservation and exploitation strategies for this valuable stock.
Materials and Methods: A total of 109 specimens (76 males and 33 females) were collected from Bandar Lengeh, Qeshm, and Bandar Abbas between October 2023 and March 2024 using trap and small-scale trawl fishing methods. In the laboratory, the morphometric features of the specimens were measured. The specimens were dissected to extract cuttlebones and prepared for age reading. Age was determined through a standardized three-step reading process under a dissecting microscope. Growth parameters (L∞ and k) were estimated for both sexes using the Gulland and Holt method. Total mortality (Z) and natural mortality (M) were calculated using a catch curve and the Chen and Watanabe age-based mortality model, respectively.
Results: Mantle length ranged from 62 to 330 mm in males (mean ± SD: 135.4 ± 67.1 mm) and from 57 to 300 mm in females (mean ± SD: 104.4 ± 54.2 mm). The von Bertalanffy growth models for mantle length-at-age Lt (mm) = 342[1 – exp (-0.27(t - 0.00))] for Males and Lt(mm) = 316[1 – exp (-0.30(t - 0.00))] for Females. The difference in growth models between sexes was statistically significant (Likelihood Ratio Test, p < 0.05). Estimated mortality rates for males were Z=3.14 yea r-¹, M = 1.73 year-¹, F= 2.73 year-¹, and for females Z= 4.46 year-¹, M= 1.79 year-1, and F= 2.35 year-¹. The exploitation rates (E) were also estimated at 0.61 for males and 0.43 for females.
Discussion: The findings indicate a rising trend in fishing mortality for A. pharaonis in the Persian Gulf compared to earlier studies. Given the overlap between the species' spawning season and peak fishing activity, continued high exploitation may pose a serious risk to stock sustainability. Therefore, it is recommended that fishing efforts and gear types targeting this species be regularly monitored. Establishing a robust database could support stock modeling and provide forecasts to guide adaptive fisheries management.

Abstract Introduction: Wind erosion is one of the major environmental challenges in arid and semi-arid regions of Iran, particularly in desert areas such as Aran and Bidgol and Kashan, where low precipitation, poor vegetation cover, and fragile soils intensify the phenomenon. Mulching is a common method for stabilizing mobile sands; however, petroleum-based mulches are limited due to high costs and adverse environmental impacts. Accordingly, bio-based mulches derived from agricultural and industrial by-products are considered safe, biodegradable, and cost-effective alternatives. The present study aimed to develop an eco-friendly mulch based on zeolite, bentonite, and molasses (a by-product of the sugar industry).
Materials and Methods: The research was conducted at the laboratory scale using a D-Optimal mixture design approach. Sand samples were collected from the deserts of Kashan and characterized according to ASTM standards. The proposed mulch was formulated from calcium bentonite (mesh 200), micronized clinoptilolite zeolite, and concentrated industrial molasses. The mixing ratios were designed and tested using DX11 software. Five performance indices were used to evaluate mulch quality: shear strength (SS), compressive strength (CS), impact resistance (IR), abrasion resistance (AR), and crust thickness (CT). The experimental results were analyzed using ANOVA, Duncan’s test, and Pearson and Spearman correlation analyses. Polynomial models were developed to fit the responses and determine the optimal formulation through mathematical optimization.
Results: ANOVA results showed that mulch treatments had significant effects (p < 0.05) on all performance indices. Maximum shear strength was recorded in treatments 28, 14, and 15, at 8.27, 8.20, and 8.17 N/cm², respectively. The highest compressive strength was observed in treatments 1 and 15, at 3.17 and 3.15 kg/cm², respectively. The greatest impact resistance was found in treatments 15, 28, 33, and 18, with values of 0.75, 0.71, 0.71, and 0.71, respectively. The highest abrasion resistance (value = 1) was recorded across treatments 4, 2, 9, 19, 21, 22, 24, 29, 26, and 30. Maximum crust thickness was obtained in treatments 21, 16, and 30, at 1.92, 1.91, and 1.89 cm, respectively. A strong and significant correlation was found between shear, compressive, and impact strength, while abrasion resistance showed weak and insignificant correlations with the other variables. The optimized mulch formulation aimed at maximizing SS, CS, IR, and CT consisted of 50% molasses, 23% bentonite, and 27% zeolite. Model validation results indicated a good agreement between experimental data and model predictions.
Discussion: Molasses, due to its adhesive properties and ability to bind soil particles, combined with bentonite as a calcium source for improved water retention and zeolite for its high cation exchange capacity, resulted in the development of a sustainable mulch with favorable physical and mechanical properties. Increasing molasses content directly enhanced mechanical strengths and crust thickness. Zeolite was more effective in improving abrasion resistance, whereas bentonite played a key role in impact resistance and crust thickness. The findings are consistent with previous studies. The proposed optimized formulation, due to its accessible raw materials, simple preparation process, non-toxicity, and potential for field application, can serve as an effective alternative to petroleum-based mulches in Iran’s desert regions. However, final performance validation requires field trials under actual climatic conditions. This study serves as a successful example of synergizing natural materials and industrial residues to develop environmentally focused technologies within a circular economy framework.

Abstract Introduction: Protected areas are the last genetic reserves of each country and represent unique ecosystems in pristine and natural areas, whose protection is essential. Management planning or zoning is an appropriate solution to create a balance between the protection of natural resources and sustainable development in these areas. The main goal of establishing protected areas is to maintain the integrity of habitats and life-giving systems, support biodiversity, and ensure the sustainable use of species richness and ecosystem services. Therefore, documented planning in the form of zoning and the development of conservation objectives for protected areas is of particular importance. The basis of management of protected areas is based on the recognition of zoning and a productivity program by applying temporal, spatial, and operational restrictions and prohibitions in each zone, considering its ecological sensitivities. Therefore, in order to utilize the capabilities of these areas, planning and zoning must reflect characteristics such as intactness, protection of biodiversity hotspots, and a wide range of pristine and scenic landscapes, and be able to respond to the development of various human activities in appropriate areas.
Materials and Methods: In the present study, with the aim of identifying areas with the highest ecological sensitivity and high priority in conservation, the Jajrud protected area was zoned using spatial indicators and multi-criteria decision-making methods in the form of linear relationships. Also, the habitat integrity in this protected area was evaluated and analyzed using landscape metrics.
Results: According to the results obtained, 7 main zones can be identified in this area, including Zone 1 (restricted nature), Zone 2 (conservation), Zone 3 (utilization), and Zone 4 (recreational use). (extensive), Zone 4 (concentrated use), Zone 7 (special use), Zone 8 (shield) and Zone 11 (other uses). Thus, in terms of sensitivity and vulnerability, Zones 1 and 2 were placed in the sensitive category due to their lower flexibility against the development of human activities and biological limitations and a higher degree of protection, and Zones 3, 4, 7, 8 and 11 were placed in the non-sensitive category due to their lower biological limitations and higher flexibility. Zoning results showed that in the Jajrud protected area, the largest area among the identified zones is related to zone 8 (23,078 hectares), and the smallest area is related to zone 4 (475 hectares). The results of the habitat integrity assessment and changes in landscape metrics also indicate that the metrics of class area, percentage of class area, and average patch size have increased at the level of built-up land, water areas, and agricultural and garden lands. While they have decreased in high-density pastures, low-density pastures, and forest land classes, the decrease in these metrics indicates an increase in patch fragmentation and a decrease in their size.
Discussion: Habitat fragmentation and reduced integrity are one of important threats to the protection of natural ecosystems. Therefore, restoring connections and maintaining corridors between habitat patches are effective strategies to control the fragmentation and destruction of natural ecosystems, which requires adopting coherent and integrated management planning and providing appropriate tools to reduce the effects of these threats. The results of the zoning and habitat integrity assessment in this study can serve as a management strategy to inform proper conservation and planning, aligning with the development of human activities within the identified zones and subsequently mitigating environmental hazards and consequences.

Abstract Introduction: Identifying the causes and factors of economic growth, especially in developing countries, has always been an important concern of researchers and policymakers. The importance of this issue is more prominent in regions that have lower economic growth such as developing countries. One of the factors that can affect economic growth is environmental quality, and in particular, greenhouse gases emissions. Environmental quality can affect economic growth through several channels. The most important of these channels include health, FDI, and technological innovation. Accordingly, considering the importance of economic growth on the one hand, and the possibility of direct and indirect impacts of CO2 emissions on economic growth on the other hand, this study aims to investigate the effect of carbon dioxide emissions on economic growth by emphasizing on three channels of health, foreign direct investment and technological innovation in Iran during the period 1981-2023 applying a time series data regression approach based on generalized method of moments.
Materials and Methods: The general form of the model used in this study is an improved form of Acheampong and Opoku (2023) model which is estimated applying Generalized Method of Moments (GMM). The reason for using this method is that this approach has high flexibility and requires few initial assumptions. In addition, this estimator is used in models in which endogeneity resulting from estimating specific unobservable effects and the inclusion of lagged dependent variable as an explanatory variable is a fundamental problem. After estimating the four models in question, the Sobel test is used to examine the mediating role of the three variables.
Results: According to the results, the impact of carbon dioxide emissions on economic growth is inverted U-shaped. This means that up to a certain level of pollution, a decrease in environmental quality leads to an increase in economic growth, and after reaching a threshold level, an increase in pollution is associated with a decrease in economic growth. Also, an increase in carbon dioxide emissions leads to an increase in mortality and thus reduces economic growth. In addition, carbon dioxide emission decreases foreign direct investment and thus has a negative impact on economic growth. Carbon dioxide emissions also reduces economic growth through a decrease in technological innovation. Therefore, according to the results of this study, carbon dioxide emission leads to a decrease in economic growth through health, foreign direct investment, and technological innovation.
Discussion: According to the results, the following policy recommendations are presented:
• Policymakers should be careful in combating environmental pollution so that their tools and strategies for reducing greenhouse gases emissions do not lead to distortion of production activities and reduced economic growth.
• Policymakers should consider the complexities associated with environmental degradation and its link to economic growth in designing environmental policies.

Abstract Introduction: In Iran, with the growth of the e-commerce sector's performance, the future perspective of e-commerce for Iran seems promising; however, an important issue that requires immediate attention is that, given the intensification of environmental problems in Iran, how will the environmental sustainability of the e-commerce sector be achieved. Thus, since the specific focus on the issue of environmental sustainability of e-commerce is new in international studies and has been unprecedented in Iran as well, the present study has addressed this issue. Therefore, the localization of a sustainable e-commerce model, which would be developed with a systematic and comprehensive view, has not been implemented so far. Accordingly, the present study has been conducted with the aim of designing a model for the environmental sustainability of e-commerce using a paradigmatic method and identifying influential variables.
Materials and Methods: This research is an applied study in terms of purpose and falls into the category of exploratory research in terms of nature. Regarding data collection, the study is descriptive. In the first phase, library studies were conducted, focusing on searching authoritative scientific and informational sources in the subject area. The results of this phase led to the formulation of the theoretical foundations and analysis of the research background, ultimately enabling the identification and extraction of influential variables. In the second phase, a survey of experts' opinions was carried out, and data were collected through exploratory interviews with knowledgeable experts and specialists in the field of the present research. These interviews aimed to complement and revise the identified variables and factors influencing the environmental sustainability of e-commerce in Iran, identify influential variables, and ultimately develop a desirable paradigm model. Subsequently, the findings from the previous stages were analyzed using content analysis method and three stages of coding. After identifying the variables through reviewing existing sources and analyzing the interview content, items were extracted and presented to the experts. Following the collection of opinions on each item, the relevant inventory was finalized. To examine the relationships between variables, an interaction effects matrix and MICMAC software were used.
Results: The findings indicate that in the paradigmatic model of the present research, the contextual conditions for the country's sustainable e-commerce comprise economic and social factors. Intervening factors include organizational, legislative, and environmental policy factors. Causal conditions consist of resource and environmental crisis and climate and energy crisis. Strategies for sustainable e-commerce include sustainable transportation and logistics, sustainable supply chain network, digital transformation and smartening, and stakeholder collaboration. Finally, the outcomes of environmental sustainability in e-commerce will manifest at both the firm level and the macro level.
Discussion: The most significant variables influencing the implementation of the environmental sustainability model for e-commerce include scarcity of raw materials and natural resources, conservation of consumption, environmental accountability, ecocentrism and consideration for future generations, top management commitment, cost management, national environmental protection laws, international environmental protection laws, government incentives for waste reduction, sustainable transportation and logistics policy, optimized transport routes, supply chain software, and social branding. Regarding goal-setting for the implementation of the environmental sustainability model for e-commerce, key variables such as corporate social responsibility strategies, ethical and cultural imperatives, organizational training on sustainability, risks of reduced biodiversity, supplier selection, location of facilities and urban distribution centers, storage and warehousing, the sharing economy, and collaborative innovation must be considered by e-commerce sector managers and decision-makers. The most important limitation of the present study was the lack of extensive prior research and practical experience regarding sustainable e-commerce in Iran, which is due to the novelty of the subject and has limited the possibility of comparison with previous studies and actions.

Abstract Abstract
Microplastic pollution and potentially toxic elements in aquatic environments pose significant environmental threats to marine ecosystems and human health. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between microplastic pollution and potentially toxic elements in the surface waters along the southwestern coasts of the Caspian Sea. In this study, the elements arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), cobalt (Co), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), mercury (Hg), lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn) were selected due to their toxic potential, bioaccumulation ability and widespread presence in aquatic environments contaminated by industrial, agricultural and urban activities. To achieve this aim, sampling was conducted at three selected stations: Kiashahr, Anzali and Astara. These stations were chosen to assess the distribution and concentration of microplastics and potentially toxic elements in the region. For microplastic sampling in surface waters, a plankton net with a mesh size of 0.35 mm was used. The net was towed by a boat at a depth of 25 cm from the water surface at a constant speed of 5 km/h for 5 minutes. In the microplastic separation process, organic matter in the water samples was first digested using hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂, 30%). Then, microplastics were separated from other suspended particles by density-based flotation in saturated NaCl solution. The concentrations of potentially toxic elements were measured using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Data analysis was performed using SPSS version 27 at a 95% confidence level. The results showed that the highest mean concentrations of elements at the Kiashahr and Anzali stations were Cu > As > Hg and at the Astara station were As > Zn > Cu > Hg. The Anzali station showed the highest abundance of microplastics with 57.66 ± 5.50 particles per m³. The extracted microplastics were classified into two morphological types: fibres and fragments, appearing in six colors: blue, brown, red, transparent, black and green. Among them, blue was the dominant color with a frequency of 78%. The highest abundance of microplastics was observed in the size ranges of 4 to 5 mm and greater than 5 mm. FTIR-ATR spectroscopy identified four types of polymers in the microplastic samples: polyethylene, polypropylene, polyester and polystyrene, among which polyethylene was identified as the dominant polymer with the highest frequency. Comparison of the concentrations of potentially toxic elements against global standards revealed that the levels of the measured elements in the surface waters of the southwestern coasts of the Caspian Sea are generally within the established standard limits. However, the concentration of mercury in this region, considering the prohibition on discharging this element into marine ecosystems, exceeds the permissible environmental standards and pollution management principles. This result indicates the presence of mercury pollution in the coastal waters, which could have negative and long-term impacts on marine ecosystems and the health of aquatic organisms. Furthermore, correlation analysis revealed a significant positive correlation between the abundance of microplastics and mercury concentration at the Kiashahr station. These findings highlight the potential role of microplastics in the adsorption, transfer and accumulation of pollutants in aquatic environments. Overall, the results of this study emphasize the need for more precise monitoring and management of pollutant sources, as well as the evaluation of risks associated with the accumulation of microplastics in the coastal waters of the Caspian Sea. This is crucial for developing effective management strategies aimed at preserving ecosystem health and reducing pollution, particularly in coastal areas impacted by human activities.

Abstract In recent decades, with the rapid increase in population, industrialization of societies, changes in lifestyle, and the growing diversity of human needs, the production of waste and residues have increased, resulting in negative consequences for human health and the environment. Rural areas have also faced various types of waste and their adverse impacts, making waste management one of the fundamental challenges for sustainable rural development aimed at environmental preservation. In this context, the present study was conducted with the objective of identifying challenges, analyzing problems, and proposing strategies for rural waste management (a case study of villages in Shahroud city) to provide a comprehensive understanding of the obstacles, issues, and limitations that have led to improper rural waste management in the study area. This comprehensive understanding of the current situation will pave the way for targeted programs to overcome barriers and properly manage rural waste among the villages studied. This research is field-based in terms of data collection, applied in terms of purpose, and descriptive-analytical in terms of methodology. The statistical population included village heads, council members, and residents of the villages in Shahroud County, from which 380 individuals were selected using Cochran’s formula. Data collection was conducted through two methods: documentary and survey. The documentary method was used to review background information and clarify the issue, while the survey method involved data gathering using observation, interviews, and questionnaires completed by residents. The data were analyzed using SPSS software and exploratory factor analysis techniques. The results from the exploratory factor analysis indicated that waste management in these villages faces multiple problems. Overall, seven factors—disposal management (variance percentage 25.2%), environmental (variance percentage 18.1%), health (variance percentage 12.2%), educational (variance percentage 11.1%), facilities and equipment (variance percentage 9.7%), cultural (variance percentage 6.3%), and awareness (variance percentage 4.9%)—explained 87% of the total variance related to rural waste management problems in the study area. These factors can lead to consequences such as soil and water pollution, increased diseases, and threats to residents’ health. Achieving sustainable development in the rural areas of Shahroud requires a comprehensive approach to waste management, integrating cultural, social, economic, and institutional measures, and actively engaging local people and officials. This approach not only helps preserve the environment and the health of rural communities but also fosters economic growth and improves the quality of life for residents in these regions. To realize sustainable development in Shahroud’s rural areas through improved waste management, a set of key actions and strategies must be pursued, which can be categorized into three dimensions: infrastructural, cultural-social, and institutional-economic. Planning for proper waste management and paying attention to the harmful effects of waste on the environment are essential principles for securing the long-term benefits of the country’s sustainable development. Finally, composting is proposed as a low-cost and effective solution for managing organic waste in rural communities. Increasing public knowledge about waste separation and the importance of recycling through educational programs and informational sessions, along with developing infrastructure aimed at reducing environmental impacts, enhancing economic efficiency, and improving the quality of life in rural areas, is strongly recommended. the rural areas of Shahroud requires a comprehensive approach to waste management, integrating cultural, social, economic, and institutional measures, and actively engaging local people and officials. This approach not only helps preserve the environment and the health of rural communities but also fosters economic growth and improves the quality of life for residents in these regions. To realize sustainable development in Shahroud’s rural areas through improved waste management, a set of key actions and strategies must be pursued, which can be categorized into three dimensions: infrastructural, cultural-social, and institutional-economic.

Abstract In recent decades, the Tehran metropolitan area, under the pressure of rapid and dense urban development, has faced a profound crisis of green space fragmentation and severe weakening of ecological networks. This process has not only disrupted key ecosystem services such as air pollution mitigation, temperature regulation, groundwater recharge, and urban flood control, but has also directly affected spatial justice and the overall quality of urban livability. Consequently, redesigning and strengthening the ecological network of Tehran has become an inevitable necessity for enhancing urban resilience. Drawing on the principles of landscape ecology and integrating remote sensing, spatial analysis, and modeling techniques, this study proposes a strategic framework for identifying, redesigning, and managing Tehran’s ecological network.

Urban green cover was extracted from satellite imagery, and a new composite index was developed to assess structural connectivity. This index enabled a more precise analysis of patch linkages and facilitated comparison across elevational belts. Accordingly, Tehran was stratified into three major belts—upland, midland, and lowland—to reveal the influence of topographical heterogeneity on the spatial pattern of green space connectivity. Based on these analyses, ecological cores, stepping stones, and connecting corridors were identified, and an ecological network plan was formulated with explicit consideration of interactions with urban access networks and the city’s river-valleys.

The findings demonstrate that the upland belt, owing to its large natural patches and foothill river-valleys, possesses the highest level of connectivity and should be prioritized for protection. In contrast, the midland belt, with the highest density of population and built-up areas, exhibits severe fragmentation and weak structural linkages, making it the most fragile part of the city. Despite this, it also holds the greatest potential for ecological restoration through the strengthening of stepping stones and the establishment of new green corridors. The lowland belt, characterized by high heterogeneity, offers further opportunities for improving ecological connectivity, particularly through the integration of urban parks and river-valleys. These patterns highlight the need for belt-specific management interventions.

From a planning perspective, the proposed strategy comprises 15 ecological cores, along with networks of corridors and stepping stones aligned with the city’s transportation system. The incorporation of protective buffer zones along river-valleys and designed corridors supports the creation of a continuous and functional network that not only enhances ecological processes but also ensures more equitable access to green spaces for residents.

The main innovations of this study lie in three aspects: (1) introducing a new index of connectivity applicable at neighborhood, district, and metropolitan scales; (2) integrating elevational, hydrological, and infrastructural data within a unified design framework; and (3) prioritizing spatial justice by identifying the midland belt as the critical missing link with both the greatest need and potential for ecological restoration. Overall, this research not only fills the gap left by previous descriptive studies but also offers a strategic roadmap for urban green space management. Its framework is generalizable to other metropolitan areas, and its outcomes provide a scientific basis for urban decision-making and environmental policy, contributing to improved ecosystem service delivery and greater spatial justice in Tehran.