Environment and Interdisciplinary Development

Abstract Air pollution is considered as one of the most significant environmental challenges resulting from unsustainable urban development, with profound adverse economic and public health impacts. The economic burdens include increased healthcare costs, reduced labor productivity, and damage to agricultural crops, while health effects range from respiratory diseases to cardiovascular problems and premature mortality. The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that 99% of the global population breathes air exceeding WHO pollution guidelines, particularly affecting low- and middle-income countries. Effective air pollution management fundamentally relies on comprehensive air quality monitoring data, which serves as the critical and first step in air pollution mitigation plans, tracking spatial distribution patterns, and analyzing temporal variations. Beyond traditional ground-based monitoring methods including air quality monitoring stations, satellite remote sensing has emerged as an indispensable tool for examining pollutant dynamics across metropolitan areas. This study investigates the spatiotemporal trends of ground-level ozone concentrations in Tehran using integrated datasets from both ground-based monitoring stations and satellite observations. The analysis incorporates data from 21 air quality monitoring stations inside the city (belong to Air Quality Control Company-subsidiary of Tehran municipality) spanning 2017 to 2025, supplemented by tropospheric ozone measurements from the AIRS sensor aboard NASA's Aqua satellite. The AIRS dataset was specifically selected for its unique capability to differentiate tropospheric (ground-level) ozone from stratospheric ozone, with satellite-derived concentrations being converted to ground-level equivalents through integration with atmospheric dispersion models. The results reveal several critical patterns in Tehran's ozone pollution. Most notably, the number of unhealthy ozone days has shown a dramatic increase from just one day in 2017 to 39 days in 2025, indicating a concerning upward trend. Diurnal and seasonal variations follow expected photochemical patterns, with peak concentrations occurring during the hours with the highest sunshine radiation (13:00-15:00) and summer months (July and August), directly correlating with maximum solar radiation intensity. These patterns confirm that ozone formation in Tehran is primarily driven by photochemical reactions involving nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) under strong sunlight conditions Furthermore, a distinct weekend effect has been identified by the weekly trend analysis, where ozone concentrations are consistently 20% higher on weekends compared to weekdays, a phenomenon which shows the NOx saturation state in the most regions inside the city and the high levels of the ratio of nitrogen oxides to volatile organic compounds and consequently prolonging ozone formation in the weekends. Validation analysis of satellite remote sensing data using the data belongs to the air quality monitoring stations demonstrates strong agreement between satellite-derived ozone concentrations and ground-based measurements, with statistical indicators (R² = 0.94, RMSE = 6.2) confirming the reliability of satellite data for areas lacking ground-based monitoring infrastructure. Spatial distribution patterns show the highest ozone concentrations occurring in areas outside the city, influenced by regional transport mechanisms and favorable atmospheric conditions for ozone accumulation due to lower ratio of nitrogen oxides to volatile organic compounds. These findings underscore the necessity for ozone management strategies that address both local emissions and regional contributions for the pollution measures inside the city, while highlighting the value of combined ground-satellite monitoring systems for comprehensive air quality assessment.

Abstract Abstract

Introduction: The Sistan Plain, located in southeastern Iran, has a hyper-arid climate and is highly dependent on limited water resources, especially the Himand River. Agriculture has historically been the dominant land use in this region, but in recent years it has experienced severe instability due to a sharp decline in water inflow. This research was conducted with the aim of identifying agriculturally sustainable areas in the Sistan Plain over the period from 1991 to 2021 based on changes in the volume of water entering the region. Considering the drastic reduction in water inflow into the Sistan region, planning for agriculture in the most sustainable areas is essential in order to achieve agricultural sustainability and prevent environmental degradation and financial losses for farmers.

Materials and Methods: This study was carried out in the Sistan Plain, located in the northern part of Sistan and Balouchestan Province. The data used in this research included Landsat satellite images from five time periods (1991, 2000, 2019, 2020, and 2021), Google Earth imagery, field data, and interviews with local residents. The area of water-covered lands in hamoun wetland and the Chahnimeh reservoirs of Sistan was considered as the amount of water entering the Sistan region. Land use and land cover maps were produced at two spatial scales: one covering the entire Sistan region including the hamoun wetland, and another focusing specifically on agricultural lands. These maps were generated using supervised classification of the satellite images into four categories: agricultural land, abandoned land, bare land, and water-covered land. The accuracy of the classifications was assessed using an error matrix and by calculating the Kappa coefficient and overall accuracy.

Results: The findings showed that in 1992 (1371 in the Iranian calendar), more than 280,000 hectares of land in the region were covered by water. However, this area decreased to less than 3,000 hectares in 2000 (1379), indicating a reduction in the inflow of the Helmand River. Similarly, in 1992, the cultivated agricultural land in the region amounted to 98,504 hectares, but by 2000 it had decreased by 31,689 hectares compared to 1992. In 2020 (1399), with the inflow of water from the Helmand River, an area of 102,506 hectares was inundated, and 105,948 hectares were cultivated by farmers. However, in 2021 and 2022 (1400 and 1401), with the complete cutoff of the Helmand River’s flow, only 45,552 and 27,899 hectares, respectively, were cultivated

Discussion: An analysis of land cover maps at a broad scale showed that in 2000, the hamoun wetland had dried up, water-covered areas decreased by 278,800 hectares, and bare land increased to more than 394,000 hectares—clear indicators of the direct consequences of reduced water resources. In 2000, vegetation cover declined from 281,000 to 139,000 hectares on a broad scale. The extent of cultivated lands in 1991 was the highest during the study period, at 98,504 hectares. Despite 2000 being the year with the least water coverage during the study period, the extent of agricultural lands still ranked third, amounting to 66,815 hectares. Results from field interviews and literature reviews showed that most wells in the region contained fresh water. In 2019, following sufficient water inflow, farmers resumed cultivation, and the highest cropping activity since 1991 occurred. With the continued reduction in water from the Helmand River during 2020 and 2021, cultivated land area also declined, and agriculture remained sustainable only in areas near the Chahnimeh reservoirs, where fresh water wells are present. Analysis of maps showing agricultural lands revealed that farmlands—especially those located in western Sistan exhibited the greatest instability during this period and were abandoned as water availability declined.

Abstract Introduction: Freshwater ecosystems are valuable ecosystems that support a significant biodiversity, from microscopic to macroscopic organisms, in these dynamic habitats. Streams and rivers are freshwater environments that are essential for maintaining a variety of aquatic organisms and ecological balance. Fishes of these ecosystem are important part of the diverse range of organisms that live in these environments. Fish, especially those found in tropical rivers, play an important role in the entire ecosystem. Aquatic organisms, including fish, require a number of physical and chemical factors for their survival and successful reproductive cycle in an aquatic ecosystem. The Sistan basin, located in southeastern Iran, is separated from all internal waters of Iran due to its geographical location and is shared with the Hirmand basin with Afghanistan. The Anjak fish is exclusively native to the Sistan basin, in the waters of the east of the country. The triple Hamun wetlands and the Chah Nimeh reservoirs of Sistan, including Chah Nimeh 1, 2, 3, and 4, with an area of approximately 15,000 hectares and a volume of approximately 1.5 billion cubic meters of fresh water, are one of the habitats of the Anjak fish, which has become rare in this habitat due to recent droughts.

Materials and Methods: In the present study, to investigate the habitat preference of Anjak in the Hamun Dam (Sistan Basin), sampling was conducted from 6 stations with 3 replicates each, for a total of 18 stations. A total of 9 physical and chemical variables of the water, including pH, water depth, river width, temperature, electrical conductivity (EC), Altitude, bed slope, and total dissolved solids, were measured and recorded simultaneously with sampling at each station. Also, the Sodium absorption rate (SAR), Sodium, Magnesium, and Calcium ions were recorded.

Results and Discussion: The results showed that the suitability of the studied species increased with an increase in all the factors studied except water depth, altitude, and pH. Increasing EC and TDS values led to a decrease in the suitability values of the studied species. In other words, the highest suitability was at a certain value and no significant fluctuation was observed. The results showed that the EC and TDS with values of 0.99 had the highest SI and Na absorbed in water with a value of 0.74 had the lowest SI index among the studied factors. The calculation of the total habitat suitability index for Anjak showed that the total value was 0.82. The results also showed that all the habitat variables studied had a significant relationship and high correlation with the suitability indices of habitat characteristics. According to the obtained results, it can be stated that the floodplain habitat of the Hamun (Adimi) wetland is a suitable habitat for the Anjak. Our finding showed with increasing depth, the suitability of the habitat for the studied species increases, given that Anjak has a large body height and depth, therefore such a mechanism is efficient and suitable for deeper parts of the habitat. Species with greater body depth prefer deeper parts of the habitat, which prevents body washing in aquatic environments and consumes less energy to cope with the water velocity.

Abstract Introduction: Despite their crucial role in preserving biodiversity, national parks and protected areas are becoming increasingly vulnerable due to growing human pressures, such as land-use change, the expansion of settlements, and local economic activities .The Sarigol national parks and protected areas, with their rich ecosystem and high biodiversity, are no exception. It faces serious local threats like mining, agriculture, and excessive livestock grazing, which endanger its long-term sustainability .
Therefore, a precise vulnerability assessment of this region, with a focus on local threat factors, is a management necessity. The primary objective of this research is to comprehensively analyze and evaluate the ecological vulnerability of the Sarigol Protected Area using the DPSIR model and to propose suitable management strategies to mitigate these threats.

Materials and Methods: This research employed a descriptive-analytical and mixed-methods approach to assess the vulnerability of the Sarigol Protected Area. The *DPSIR conceptual framework* was used to systematically analyze the interactions between human activities and the ecosystem. Data were collected using a researcher-developed questionnaire, which was designed based on the input of 20 local experts and specialists. The questionnaire items used a Likert scale to identify and prioritize the driving forces and environmental pressures .To ensure data reliability and validity, content and logical validity were confirmed through a Delphi process, and reliability was assessed using internal consistency measures.
The vulnerability assessment was conducted by quantitatively measuring the severity and probability of each threat, with the final score calculated as the product of these two metrics. Additionally, the area's values (ecological, hydrological, economic, and social) were rated based on their magnitude and significance. Finally, the overall vulnerability score was computed by simultaneously considering the threat score, the value score, and the impact of the threat on the value, and was categorized into three levels: low, medium, and high
Results: The DPSIR analysis identified seven key driving forces in the region: population growth, tourism development, expansion of rural settlements, agricultural and livestock activities, transportation infrastructure development, and mining activities. The threat assessment revealed that several high-risk factors, including road construction, illegal hunting, overgrazing, and deforestation, are endangering the area. Concurrently, the ecological value assessment confirmed the very high importance of the area's flora, fauna, and wildlife habitats. It was also found that traditional livestock farming has the highest economic value, yet overgrazing is a major threat—revealing a key paradox.
Discussion: The final vulnerability analysis confirmed the severe vulnerability of ecological values to transportation infrastructure, drought, deforestation, and livestock farming. These findings suggest that the intrinsic value of the ecosystem alone is not enough for its protection, and that the high vulnerability results from a lack of cohesive management and effective responses.
In conclusion, this study applied the DPSIR framework to assess the vulnerability of the Sarigol National Park and Protected Area, finding that it is caused by human driving forces and pressures such as overgrazing, deforestation, and infrastructure development. The results reveal a paradox between the area's high ecological value and its severe vulnerability due to a lack of integrated management. Therefore, the long-term sustainability of Sarigol will require the development of adaptive management strategies, attention to local livelihoods, and the decisive implementation of macro-level management responses.

Abstract Introduction: Currently, achieving sustainable food security—which is regarded as one of the most fundamental requirements for economic, social, and human development at both national and international levels—is facing numerous threats. Rapid population growth, the excessive and unsustainable exploitation of soil, water, and energy resources, along with the intensification of climate change, are among the most significant factors that have not only disrupted ecological balance but have also posed serious challenges to the path toward achieving sustainable development goals. In this context, environmental degradation caused by human activities—especially the emission of greenhouse gases—has increasingly drawn the attention of researchers and policymakers as a major factor contributing to the decline in both the quality and quantity of agricultural production. These emissions have not only led to global warming and the emergence of phenomena such as droughts, floods, and shifts in precipitation patterns but have also disrupted the stable climatic conditions necessary for food production. Accordingly, the present study aims to examine the impact of environmental degradation, with a particular focus on greenhouse gas emissions, on food security (food production) in D8 member countries.
Materials and Methods: To conduct the empirical analysis, an econometric model was developed with the food production index as the dependent variable, and agricultural land, population growth, greenhouse gas emissions (as an indicator of environmental degradation), and food price inflation as independent variables. In order to estimate the model parameters, the panel data method was employed. First, the stationarity of the variables was tested using the Levin, Lin, and Chu (LLC) unit root test. Due to the non-stationarity of one of the variables, the Kao cointegration test was applied to confirm the existence of a long-term relationship. Based on the results of the F-Limer and Hausman tests, a fixed effects model was selected and estimated using the Generalized Least Squares (GLS) method. The data for the period 1994 to 2023 were obtained from the World Bank.
Results: The findings indicate that food price inflation and agricultural land have a positive and significant effect on food production index. Specifically, a one-unit increase in agricultural land leads to a 0.1186 unit increase in the food production index, while a one-unit rise in food price inflation increases food production index by 0.0194 units. In contrast, population growth and environmental degradation have a negative and significant effect on food production index. A one-unit increase in population growth results in a 14.9712 unit decrease in food production index, and a one-unit increase in greenhouse gas emissions leads to a 0.2817 unit decline in food production index.
Discussion: The results of this study highlight that environmental degradation is a significant threat to food production capacity in D8 countries. The rising levels of greenhouse gas emissions and their consequences—such as climate change, droughts, and global warming—directly undermine food security. Additionally, rapid population growth without proportional development in agricultural infrastructure and natural resources places extra pressure on food systems. On the other hand, rising food prices may serve as an economic incentive that encourages farmers to increase production. Accordingly, smart policymaking in four key areas—agricultural land conservation, environmental protection, population growth management, and strengthening economic incentives—is essential to enhance food production capacity in these countries.

Abstract Abstract
Introduction: In recent decades, rapid urbanization, increased energy consumption, and continued reliance on fossil fuels have posed significant challenges to public health and environmental sustainability in developing countries. Green electricity, generated from renewable sources (solar, wind, biomass, and hydropower), plays a dual role in the economy and health as a key element in the energy transition. Accordingly, the objective of this study is to examine the non-linear relationship between green electricity and public health, considering urbanization as a threshold variable in developing countries from 2001 to 2023.
Methods: This study uses panel data from 10 developing countries and employs the Panel Smooth Transition Regression (PSTR) model. The dependent variable is the composite public health index, which includes life expectancy and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs). The independent variables consist of the share of green electricity in total electricity generation, GDP per capita, urbanization percentage, health expenditure per capita, and greenhouse gas emissions. In this model, urbanization is considered as a threshold variable to examine how the effects of other variables on health change with the increase in urban development.
Findings: The linear model results showed that GDP per capita, urbanization, and the share of green electricity have a positive and significant impact on public health, while health expenditures and greenhouse gas emissions have a negative impact. In the non-linear PSTR model, the urbanization threshold was found to be 55.6%. In the first regime (low urbanization), the effect of green electricity on health was minimal, but in the second regime (high urbanization), this effect increased significantly. Additionally, the positive effects of GDP and urbanization on health were amplified in the second regime, while the negative effect of health expenditures decreased. These findings suggest that as development increases and infrastructure improves, economic productivity and clean energy play a more prominent role in enhancing health. On the other hand, while greenhouse gas emissions have a negative impact on health in the first regime, in the second regime, the apparent positive effect aligns with the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) theory, suggesting that in advanced stages, the negative effects of pollution are mitigated by clean technologies and environmental policies.
Discussion and Conclusion: In the discussion and conclusion of the paper, the results clearly indicate that green electricity can have a significant and sustainable impact on public health in developing countries only when accompanied by improvements in technical infrastructure, sustainable urban development, and economic growth. In the early stages of development, developing countries face financial and technical constraints, which hinder the full realization of health-oriented benefits of renewable electricity. Specifically, during these initial stages, challenges such as limited financial resources, technological deficiencies, and infrastructure issues result in the positive effects of green electricity on public health remaining at a limited level. However, as urban development reaches a certain threshold, and with advancements in technical infrastructure and increased access to modern, clean technologies, this relationship strengthens and significantly leads to improved air quality, reduced pollution-related diseases, and enhanced health indicators.
Keywords: Green electricity, urbanization, greenhouse gas emissions, developing countries, Panel Smooth Transition Regression (PSTR) model

Abstract Introduction: Air pollution is recognized as a dangerous consequence resulting from the expansion of urban populations and the increase in energy consumption in the present era, and numerous studies conducted in this regard have identified airborne particulate matter as one of the main threats to human health. Having the necessary information about the physico-chemical nature and understanding the behavior of suspended particles in the environment plays an important role in implementing control and management programs. One of the important topics raised in the field of air pollution is the concentration of particulate matter in indoor spaces, which can be affected by the infiltration of outdoor particles. The prolonged presence of individuals inside their homes increases the likelihood of long term exposure to indoor airborne particles.
Materials and Methods: In this study, four residential buildings located in the city of Tehran were used to examine indoor particulate concentrations, air quality, and the particle mass distribution. Additionally, sampling was conducted at one point in the Amirabad area in order to investigate the distribution of outdoor particles. A cascade impactor sampler with a constant flow rate of 28.3 liters per minute was used for a period of 4 to 6 hours at times when the residents were present in order to collect airborne particles.
Results: Based on the obtained results, 0.75% by weight of the collected particulate matter was composed of particles with diameters smaller than 0.4 micrometers. Although this may seem negligible in comparison to the mass of other suspended particles, considering the very small size of these particles and their ability to penetrate vital organs of the body through the lungs, they pose a greater degree of toxicity. Despite the fact that the mean concentration of collected particles smaller than 0.4 micrometers was about 0.46 µg/m3, in comparison to particles larger than 11 micrometers measured at 24.88 µg/m3 and comprising approximately 41% by weight the smaller particles represent a greater health risk. Meanwhile, 2.99% by weight (with an average concentration of 3.48 µg/m3) of the particles collected outdoors consisted of particles smaller than 0.4 micrometers. Also, approximately 13.83% by weight of the indoor particles were composed of particles with an effective diameter smaller than 3.3 micrometers, while this value was 86.17% for the outdoor environment. In all particle size ranges, statistically significant differences were observed between particle concentrations across the four sampling sites. This difference becomes more pronounced with increasing particle size.
Discussion: Considering the age of the buildings, the type of ventilation and cooling systems, and the activities of the occupants, the infiltration and distribution of airborne particles indoors were considerable, and environmental variables such as temperature and humidity influenced particle distribution. The distance of buildings from pollutant generating sources such as major roads and high traffic routes was also one of the most important factors affecting the increased concentration of indoor particles. This parameter was especially noticeable in indoor spaces lacking ventilation systems or having defective systems. Indoor cleanliness, movement of residents, and the type of cooling system used also played a significant role in indoor particle dispersion. Therefore, increasing public awareness among building design specialists as well as the general population can partially help prevent excessive infiltration and distribution of particles indoors and reduce the likelihood of long term exposure for individuals.

Abstract The present study aimed to investigate the effect of environmental education based on visual narrative (digital comic strip) on the environmental attitudes of elementary school students in Arak city. A quasi-experimental design, including pre-test and post-test with a control group, was employed. The statistical population comprised all female students aged 9-10 in the fourth grade of elementary school in Arak city during the academic year 2024-2025. A convenience sampling method was used to select the sample size. The research sample included 32 fourth-grade female students from Imam Khomeini (RA) Elementary School in Arak, who were randomly divided into two groups: experimental (16 students) and control (16 students). The research instruments were a researcher-made comic strip medium and Imamgholi's (2011) Environmental Attitude Questionnaire. The experimental group received environmental concepts from the fourth-grade science curriculum through the researcher-made digital comic strip for 8 45-minute sessions (two sessions per week), while the control group followed the traditional method for learning these science concepts. Data analysis was conducted at descriptive and inferential levels. Descriptive statistics, including frequency tables, graphs, central tendency measures (mean), and dispersion measures (standard deviation), were used at the descriptive level. Multivariate analysis of covariance was used at the inferential level, and SPSS software was utilized for data analysis. The analysis of the research data indicates a significant difference (p < 0.01) in environmental attitude between the experimental and control groups, with a significance level of 0.001. This means that the difference in the impact of the two methods – using digital comic strips for teaching environmental science concepts and the traditional method – on the linear combination of dependent variables in fourth-grade elementary students was significant. Based on the findings, it can be concluded that after controlling for the effect of the pre-test (initial differences), the use of digital comic strips for teaching environmental science concepts is effective in improving the environmental attitudes of elementary students.The present study aimed to investigate the effect of environmental education based on visual narrative (digital comic strip) on the environmental attitudes of elementary school students in Arak city. A quasi-experimental design, including pre-test and post-test with a control group, was employed. The statistical population comprised all female students aged 9-10 in the fourth grade of elementary school in Arak city during the academic year 2024-2025. A convenience sampling method was used to select the sample size. The research sample included 32 fourth-grade female students from Imam Khomeini (RA) Elementary School in Arak, who were randomly divided into two groups: experimental (16 students) and control (16 students). The research instruments were a researcher-made comic strip medium and Imamgholi's (2011) Environmental Attitude Questionnaire. The experimental group received environmental concepts from the fourth-grade science curriculum through the researcher-made digital comic strip for 8 45-minute sessions (two sessions per week), while the control group followed the traditional method for learning these science concepts. Data analysis was conducted at descriptive and inferential levels. Descriptive statistics, including frequency tables, graphs, central tendency measures (mean), and dispersion measures (standard deviation), were used at the descriptive level. Multivariate analysis of covariance was used at the inferential level, and SPSS software was utilized for data analysis. The analysis of the research data indicates a significant difference (p < 0.01) in environmental attitude between the experimental and control groups, with a significance level of 0.001. This means that the difference in the impact of the two methods – using digital comic strips for teaching environmental science concepts and the traditional method – on the linear combination of dependent variables in fourth-grade elementary students was significant. Based on the findings, it can be concluded that