Environment and Interdisciplinary Development

Abstract Introduction: According to the statistics published by the Global Footprint Network, Iran's ecological deficit, which was 0.55 per capita global hectare in 1961, has increased by 554% to 2.50 per capita global hectare in 2022; which shows that the existing supply of natural resources in Iran is not enough to maintain the current production and consumption patterns. Based on this, the analysis of the determining factors of environmental quality indicators in Iran can provide valuable suggestions in the field of designing appropriate environmental policies. In this regard, the main goal of this study is to examine the causal determinants of environmental indicators in Iran.
Materials and Methods: The present descriptive-analytical and applied study uses time series data from 1970-2022 to examine the causal determinants of environmental indicators in Iran using two traditional indicators of CO2 emission and ecological footprint (EF) and also the new index of load capacity factor (LCF) which simultaneously considers the supply and demand of nature. Based on this, the causal effect of economic growth, natural resources dependency, urbanization, and renewable energy consumption on environmental quality indicators has been investigated by applying the new approach of Bootstrap Fourier Granger Causality in Quantile (BFGC-Q) during the years 1970-2022. Unlike previous Grangerian causality tests, this approach considers the issue of non-linearity and structural breaks and can provide useful information about a causal-tail relationship.
Results: The results show that urbanization in all quantiles (10th-90th) leads to an increase in CO2 emissions and EF and a decrease in LCF. GDP per capita in the low and middle quantiles (10th-50th) shows a negative causal relationship with LCF and a positive causal relationship with EF in the initial 10th and upper 70th quantiles. Furthermore, GDP per capita in all quantiles (10th-90th) has increased CO2 emissions. Regarding the rent of natural resources, in general, the results of this research support the neutral hypothesis and the absence of a causal relationship. Renewable energy consumption also leads to an increase in LCF in all quantiles (10th-90th) and a decrease in EF in 10th-70th quantiles. While this variable did not have a significant causal relationship with CO2 emissions in any of the quantiles.
Discussion: The results show that depending on the investigated environmental index, the effects of economic growth, dependence on natural resources, urbanization, and renewable energy consumption on ecological quality are somewhat different. Based on the results, urbanization has led to the destruction of the country's environment. Therefore, policymakers and urban planners in the process of expanding urbanization must pay attention to the prevention of environmental destruction and prioritize the correct energy consumption. The positive causal effect of GDP per capita in all quantiles on CO2 emissions shows that growth and development paths in Iran are more carbon-intensive. Therefore, efforts should be made to achieve higher economic growth, which requires the use of more energy as one of the most important production factors, by creating and strengthening clean energy and also using technologies to be advanced, efficient, and environmentally friendly in the production process. Considering the positive effect of renewable energy consumption on the LCF index and its negative effect acton EF, it can be said that the increase in renewable energy consumption has reduced the ecological footprint and surpassed its biological capacity in Iran; Based on this, increasing the share of renewable energy can help improve the quality of the environment in the country.

Abstract Introduction: In response to the growing environmental challenges in Iran, particularly regarding the implementation of policies in governmental organizations, this study was designed and conducted with the aim of identifying key components for implementing environmental protection based on the application of knowledge management. In this study, knowledge management is not treated as a variable, but rather as a conceptual and operational framework that, through the three dimensions of knowledge acquisition, knowledge sharing, and knowledge evaluation, facilitates the effectiveness of policy implementation in the environmental sector. The theoretical framework of the study is based on Edwards’ four-component model, which was expanded by adding the organizational culture component and adapted to the institutional conditions of Iran. By reviewing previous implementation models and integrating them with the knowledge management literature, this framework offers enhanced analytical capacity for understanding institutional barriers and capabilities.
Materials and Methods: This research, derived from a doctoral dissertation, follows an applied-developmental approach and is conducted as a descriptive-survey study. Data were collected from 50 experts in the fields of environment and knowledge management within governmental organizations, using a researcher-developed questionnaire and analysis of national development documents. The research instrument included 15 items across five initial components, which were reduced to four main components through factor analysis. The validity of the instrument was confirmed by expert opinion, and its reliability was measured using Cronbach’s alpha (α = 0.810). Additionally, the results of the KMO test (0.643) and Bartlett’s test (χ² = 389.270, p < 0.001) confirmed the adequacy of the data for factor analysis. Furthermore, Pearson correlation coefficients were used to analyze the internal relationships among the components, with the results forming the basis for future research. The combination of statistical methods and official document analysis established an integrated, evidence-based approach in this study.
Results: Factor analysis revealed that 15 items loaded onto four main components: organizational structure (3 items), organizational communication (3 items), resources and implementers’ orientations (6 items), and organizational culture (3 items), collectively explaining 69.40% of the total variance. All items had factor loadings above 0.522. The results indicate that the “resources and implementers’ orientations” component, with the highest eigenvalue (3.377) and the greatest contribution to explaining total variance (22.51%), is considered the most important factor in the successful implementation of environmental policies. Meanwhile, despite a lower average in descriptive assessments, the organizational culture component showed high conceptual coherence and strong factor loadings (up to 0.856), playing a foundational and "soft" role in explaining perceptual differences among respondents.
Discussion: A review of Iran’s five-year development plans shows that all four identified components are also reflected in these documents, though with varying intensity and coherence. For example, the “resources and implementers’ orientations” component is implicitly addressed in the third and sixth development plans, and the organizational structure is highlighted in the environmental chapter of the fourth plan. Organizational culture, too, appears as a key policy axis in the form of education and public awareness, though it faces challenges in practical implementation. This overlap and comparative analysis reinforce the practical validity of the proposed conceptual framework. The main innovation lies in conceptualizing knowledge management as a comprehensive conceptual foundation rather than a standalone variable, permeating all components. Additionally, introducing culture as an independent, measurable component distinguishes this framework from previous studies. Accordingly, this research, alongside its theoretical grounding, possesses empirical validity and can serve as a basis for developing operational models in environmental policymaking. The findings pave the way for designing a model for environmental policy implementation in subsequent stages and offer decision-makers and policymakers a clear, evidence-based framework, laying the foundation for policy model design at both sectoral and cross-sectoral levels.

Abstract Introduction: The use of organochlorine (OCPs) and organophosphorus pesticides (OPPs) on a large scale in agricultural lands in the northern provinces of Iran is very common. When pesticides enter water, these toxins are easily distributed in the environment and have the ability to bioaccumulate in living organisms. Exposure to such contaminated water is harmful to human health and living organisms. In this study, the latest ecological status of the wetland was examined in terms of changes in physicochemical parameters, changes in physicochemical parameters, and widely used agricultural pesticides in water, sediment, and fish samples in the three eastern, middle, and western parts of Anzali Wetland.
Materials and Methods: In this study, the sampling was conducted from 10 stations in the Wetland in the spring of 2021. Water samples were collected from a depth of 1 m, sediment samples were collected using a Grab van Veen sampler, and the fishes were collected by netting. A multi-parameter water quality meter was used to measure pH, Electrical conductivity (EC) and Total dissolved solids (TDS) parameters, and the Winkler method and standard methods were used to measure Dissolved oxygen (DO), Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), and Chemical oxygen demand (COD), respectively. The levels of aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, diazinon, malathion, and azinphos-methyl in the samples were measured using a Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS). For statistical analysis, univariate and multivariate statistical tests including cluster analysis, principal component analysis (PCA), and non-metric multidimensional scaling (n-MDS) were used.
Results: In this study, the total mean of BOD, COD, DO and depth in the Wetland were 26, 46.6, 4.09 (mg/L) and 1.2 m, respectively. The maximum salinity (ppt) and EC (mS/cm) in the Wetland were recorded at depth of 0.6 (m), in the middle part of the wetland 3.84 and 6.8, respectively. The mean TDS in the Wetland (g/L) was 1.11 and the mean turbidity (NTU) was 3.57. The maximum sand content in Anzali Wetland (69.67%) was recorded in the middle part of the wetland and the maximum silt content (37.50%), clay (32.25%) and total organic matter content (12.41%) were recorded in the western part of the wetland. The mean concentration of OCPs and OPPs in the water of the entire wetland was measured as 1.3 and 0.7 µg/L, respectively, but they were not detectable in the sediment and muscle of fish samples.
Discussion: In the present study, the reason for the low DO and high BOD and COD values in the eastern part may be due to the pollution of the Pirbazar River and the increase in the pollution load due to the entry of sewage. The pH of the water indicates that the pH was uniform and alkaline in the wetland. The TDS value was higher in the middle part of the wetland, which in some places could be related to agricultural and industrial activities or particles resulting from the remains of phytoplankton bodies. With the increase in the amount of organic matter and clay in the western part of the wetland, the Cation exchange capacity (CEC) value also increased. The PCA results in Anzali Wetland showed that sediment variables, like water parameters, can play a significant role in explaining changes in the wetland ecological system. The results of the cluster test and n-MDS based on environmental physicochemical conditions indicate differences between different parts of the wetland, and overall, this issue can reflect the effect of the specific hydrodynamic and topographic conditions of the region. One of the reasons for the absence of OCPs and OPPs in this study could be the influence of environmental parameters, especially pH, which was alkaline and caused the removal of these toxins.

Abstract Introduction: Contamination of agricultural land with heavy metals such as Pb, Cd, Zn, and Ni from sources such as phosphate fertilizers, the use of sewage sludge, urban effluents and domestic sewage is one of the important problems and a serious threat to the environment and human health. Heavy metals, due to their non-degradability and low mobility, have harmful physiological effects on the health of living organisms and the environment. When heavy metals enter the human body by any way, there is a possibility of stimulating the body's immune system and may cause nausea, anorexia, vomiting, digestive abnormalities and dermatitis. In order to solve the problem, first of all, the amount and manner of contamination dispersion should be determined in the suspicious lands. Then, by identifying areas with different levels of contamination, management strategies can be proposed in the discussion of land use planning to restore contaminated areas. The purpose of this research is to determine the amount of heavy metal contamination (such as Cd and Cu) in the agricultural farms of the Shabstar Plain using contamination indices and theirs zoning. 
Materials and Methods: This research was carried out in the Shabstar plain, which is located in 70 km west of Tbriz city and north of Lake Urmia. 60 samples were prepared from the depth of 0-30 cm and transferred to the laboratory. Sampling locations were done using a specific geographic locator device. The concentrations of Cd and Cu in extracts prepared from soil samples using TEA and DTPA were measured using an Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectrometer (ICP). Then contamination indices including pollution index (PI), geo accumulation index (Igeo), enrichment factor (EF) and Nemerow pollution index (PIn) were calculated. Finally, the spatial distribution of Cd and Cu contamination in the studied area was done based on contamination indices and by using the Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) method.
Results: The results showed that the studied soil samples were heterogeneous in terms of salinity and organic carbon content, but they were homogeneous in terms of lime content. The average concentration of Cd is 1.051 mg/kg and more than the upper limit of the international standard and less than the upper limit of the Iranian standard. In terms of PI, the studied soils are in the moderate contamination class for Cd (PI=1.05) and low contamination class for Cu (PI=0.03) and in terms of the Igeo index, in the moderately/strongly contamination class for cadmium (2.83= Igeo) and uncontaminated for Cu (Igeo = -5.05). In terms of the enrichment factor, the studied soils were in the Extremely high pollution class for Cd (EF=76.1) and in the minimum pollution class for copper (EF=0.35). 
Discussion: The results of Nemerow pollution index (PIn) showed that the soils of the studied area are in the slightly polluted class in terms of the Cu (PIn = 1.38). The spatial distribution predicted by the mathematical method of Inverse Distance Weighting for pollution indices (PI, Igeo and EF) showed that the studied area with agricultural use had the highest amount of these indices for Cd. The pollution of Cd was in extremely high to moderate pollution classes. The contamination of Cu was in the low to non-contaminated class. To reduce soil contamination with heavy metals, the use of green technology or phytoremediation is suggested.

Abstract Introduction: The international mangrove wetland of Khurkhoran on the southern coast of Iran, plays an important role in absorbing and stabilizing the retention of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus, which reduces pollution of water resources and improves water quality. The increase in the use of chemical fertilizers in agriculture, the entry of urban and industrial wastewater, and changes in land use have put great pressure on this ecosystem and have increased the nutrient load in the waters entering the wetland. Therefore, the quantification and economic valuation of this ecosystem service is essential for the planning and sustainable management of wetlands. This study aims to: (1) Quantitatively assess the retention of nitrogen and phosphorus by the Khorkhoran International Wetland; (2) Map the spatial distribution of nutrient export and retention; and, (3) Estimate the economic value of this ecosystem service using both the avoided cost and benefit transfer approaches.
Materials and Methods: In this study, the NDR model from the InVEST software package was used to simulate the export and retention of nitrogen and phosphorus in the study area. The key input data included a land use map, a precipitation and surface runoff map, DEM, and nutrient loads from agricultural and urban activities. The input data were processed in the ArcGIS software environment and the model was run. Subsequently, the model outputs included maps of extracted nutrient export and retention and key areas of this service were identified. Then, using the avoided cost and the benefit transfer methods, the economic value of the nutrient retention service was calculated based on the replacement cost of treating these materials in wastewater treatment engineering systems.
Results: The modeling results showed that the Khorkhoran mangrove wetland annually retains 243.75 and 834.18 tons of phosphorus and nitrogen respectively, which prevents these substances from entering water resources and causing problems such as algal blooms. Also, areas covered by mangrove forests and coastal marshes played the greatest role in retention these elements, while agricultural and urban areas showed the highest nutrient export. The annual phosphorus and nitrogen export from the study area was estimated to be 21.48 and 90.52 tons respectively, indicating the negative effects of human uses on the nutrient load entering the wetland. The economic value of the nutrient retention service was calculated. Accordingly, the cost of removing each kilogram of nitrogen and phosphorus in wastewater treatment systems was estimated to be 2.7 and 14.3 US$ in 2023. Considering the amount of nutrient retention in the wetland, the total value of this service in the study area was estimated to be 2639503 million Iran’s rials (Equal to US$ 5738050).
Discution: The results of this study emphasize that the Khor Khoran mangrove wetland is an effective natural filter for reducing water resource pollution. Preservation and management of this wetland can be a suitable economic alternative to costly wastewater treatment methods. As a result, in environmental management policies, paying attention to ecosystem services such as nutrient retention can significantly contribute to improving water quality and reducing pollution. In addition, it is suggested that future research should use field data and more accurate modeling methods to better assess these services. To improve the accuracy of predictions and assessments of ecosystem function, it is also necessary to simulate various climate conditions and examine the results under different scenarios.

Abstract Introduction: Each ecosystem provides essential goods and services that support human needs and community well-being. However, wetlands in both Iran and globally are confronted with significant challenges, including reduced area, water pollution, and changes in land use, all of which threaten their sustainability. Consequently, the protection of these critical ecosystems is crucial for their sustainable management. To address this, the DPSIR framework has been developed in recent years to assess environmental changes and analyze the impacts of human activities on the environment. Therefore, the present study aims to evaluate the environmental status of Alagol Wetland using the DPSIR framework and to explore the cause-and-effect relationships between human activities and environmental impacts.
Materials and Methods: This study was conducted in four main steps: identifying the driving forces affecting the status of wetlands, examining the pressures on the current environmental condition and assessing the negative impacts; adapting and localizing the data for the Alagol Wetland through field visits and interviews with local residents and experts; describing the environmental condition of the Alagol Wetland within the DPSIR framework and identifying and proposing the most significant solutions to reduce, compensate or resolve the issues facing the studied wetland, using a Likert-scale questionnaire.
Results: The study findings indicated that population growth, climate change, development of settlements and rural areas, water demands of surrounding communities, road and transportation infrastructure development, lack of integrated management, weak regulations, agricultural activities, tourism, industrial growth and development, aquaculture and fisheries, livestock farming and excessive grazing are the primary driving forces that, through a series of cause-and-effect relationships, have led to pressures, conditions and impacts. To manage these effects and improve the status of the wetland, 65 response strategies were presented. After evaluation by experts, the most important strategies were identified for each driving force. Key strategies include monitoring peripheral lands and defining wetland boundaries, using modern irrigation systems, preventing land grabbing, integrated water management, adhering to environmental development requirements as per the National Land Use Master Plan, promoting a comprehensive wetland management approach, maintaining hydrological balance in the basin, planning tourism development in accordance with regional capacities, applying advanced technologies in conservation, preserving native aquatic species and zoning appropriate grazing areas around the wetland.
Discussion: The environmental status assessment of Alagol Wetland using the DPSIR model clarifies the cause-and-effect relationships between human and natural factors and their impacts on the wetland ecosystem. Driving forces such as population growth and climate change exert pressure on the wetland environment, leading to negative changes in water quality, habitats and biodiversity. Since these changes pose serious threats to the wetland's sustainability, identifying and implementing management solutions is essential. The proposed measures, alongside strengthening integrated management and active community participation, require continuous monitoring, sufficient resource allocation and the development of effective regulations for the protection of this valuable ecosystem. In this regard, the developed indicators of the DPSIR model can serve as effective tools for policymakers and managers in planning and decision-making processes related to the conservation of Alagol Wetland.

Abstract Introduction:  Land use changes fundamentally reshape the sustainability of natural ecosystems, with wetlands being among the most vulnerable biomes due to their critical role in providing ecosystem services. The Meighan Wetland, one of Iran's key habitats for migratory birds, has undergone substantial land use transformations in recent decades due to anthropogenic and climatic changes. Understanding the dynamics of land use/land cover changes and quantifying the spatiotemporal patterns of wetland loss are essential for addressing environmental challenges and risks, understanding trends, identifying sensitive and vulnerable zones, restoring degraded areas, sustainably managing wetland resources, and developing informed policies and future planning strategies.  
Materials and Methods:  This study aimed to identify and analyze land use changes in the Meighan Wetland basin over more than two decades (1998–2020) using remote sensing data and Geographic Information Systems (GIS). Landsat 5 TM and Landsat 8 OLI_TIRS satellite images were employed, with radiometric and geometric corrections applied to the images, achieving an RMSE of 0.45. Image processing was conducted using the Maximum Likelihood Classification (MLC) and Support Vector Machine (SVM) methods. To evaluate classification accuracy, an error matrix was generated, and accuracy assessment was performed using overall accuracy, Kappa coefficient, producer’s accuracy, and user’s accuracy. Post-classification change detection was applied to identify changes over time. The extracted land use maps for each study period were analyzed for the different sub-basins within the Meighan watershed, comparing the areas of major land use classes, including water bodies, residential-industrial zones, rainfed croplands, rocky outcrops, and rangelands. The land use change detection and analysis were conducted using classification models in ArcGIS.  
Results:  The accuracy assessment validated the high reliability of the generated land use maps. For SVM and MLC classification methods, Kappa coefficients of 0.68 and 0.91, and overall accuracies of 71.57% and 93.12% were obtained for 1998, respectively. For 2020, Kappa coefficients of 0.90 and 0.92, and overall accuracies of 93.11% and 94.56% were achieved. The MLC method outperformed SVM in classification accuracy. During the investigation period, rangeland cover declined by 16.93%, with the highest reduction observed in the Ebrahimabad sub-basin (61% decrease). Agricultural land, particularly irrigated fields and orchards, increased by 12.35%, while rainfed croplands expanded in all sub-basins except Karharood. Residential-industrial land use exhibited an increasing trend across all sub-basins except Ebrahimabad.  
Discussion:  The 22-year analysis reveals that the Meighan Wetland basin, as a sensitive and fragile ecosystem, has experienced extensive land use and cover changes. Climate change, human activities, and excessive resource exploitation have significantly contributed to wetland shrinkage. These factors, interacting in a complex manner, have led to an unsustainable development cycle that threatens water and soil resources while altering the region’s ecological functions. Failure to implement strategic management could shift the basin from an ecosystem service provider to a primary source of saline dust, posing severe public health risks to surrounding communities. This research highlights the critical role of remote sensing data and GIS-based analyses in detecting environmental change patterns in wetlands and providing precise spatiotemporal data to support decision-making and the development of effective environmental management strategies.  

Abstract Introduction: Inappropriate industrial and mining development in the suburbs of cities with a desert climate (dry subtropical) have resulted in dust pollutions. The soils in the study area were naturally alluvial soils with medium loamy sand surface texture, without layer restrictions and without salinity. The vegetation on the soils was naturally weak to medium pasture type with a predominance of Artemisia plant species (Artemisia spp.) and Tamarix species (Tamarix spp.) in the waterways.  The dangers of aerosols are not hidden from anyone. In order to mention its importance, in terms of health and treatment, we can refer to all kinds of dangerous diseases caused by the entry of silica particles or compounds such as iron into the lungs. On the other hand, suspended particles can affect solar radiation in terms of light physics and cause conditions such as greenhouse gases and local warming.  In this study, soil was used as an indicator of the impact of industries and mines on the environment. Therefore, this study aimed to identify dust pollution hotspots and distinguish areas on the outskirts of Yazd city up to 30 kilometers from Yazd city where metal industries and sand and gravel mines had affected soil characteristics.
Materials and Methods: The concentration of airborne particles in the study area where various industries were located was measured by a portable dust sampler, HazDUST Model 5000, as a mobile devise. For this purpose, in the study area, the mobile device for measuring the amount and size of suspended particles was used with the filters:10.0, 2.5 and 1.0 microns. Also, from the dusts of the different studied areas, scanning electron microscope imaging test was performed along with the supplementary X-ray energy dispersion analyzer (ESM-EDX). To investigate the effect of suspended particles on soil and to obtain the effects of dust on soil types, soil sampling was carried out separately in the areas of steel industry expansion and sand and gravel mines up to 30 kilometers west of Yazd city. 
Results: The obtained results showed that the soil types were different in the chemical and physical properties. In such a way, the areas with metal industrial dust originating from alloy steel factories were separated with suspended particles less than one micron compared to the dust from sand mines with suspended particles less than ten microns. Also, these suspended particles were deposited on the soil, which was confirmed according to the field observations of the changes in the surface horizons, such as the color of the soil horizon and the formation of the horizon necessary for the formation of industrial soil or Technosol according to the FAO WRB 2015 soil classification. More than 95% of the soils were a mixture of natural soil and technosol (industrial soil). These soils had been altered from their natural state by the effects of industrial and mining development.
Discussion: Sand mines and steel factories have managed to intensify the process of human-induced desertification in Yazd. Although the fields of work and expertise of this research have been in the field of natural geography and soil science. It can be expected that the presence of suspended particles has been able to affect people's health as well as other components related to a desert ecosystem such as vegetation and soil biomes. Since soil is one of the integral parts of every native life like the deserts of Yazd, it can be concluded that by changing the soil from natural state to industrial state, the soil is destroyed or goes through its destructive stages. With this feature, it is possible to raise the possibility of human desertification in the outskirts of Yazd city. It is necessary to take care of this matters more seriously by technical experts in addition to soil protection, also regarding in health and medical affairs.